A Website Of
Water Research Laboratory (WRL),
Applied Chemistry and Corrosion Division (ACC),
National Metallurgical Laboratory (NML) , Jamshedpur
Council Of Scientific And Industrial Research(CSIR),India.
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Dr. Santanu Bhattacharjee
Different guideline values for drinking water
(Source: http://www.twadboard.com/guide.asp HACH Water Analysis Handbook, 4th Ed., Rev.2, 2003)
Parameter
CPHEEOa
BISb
WHOc
USEPAd
Canadae
Japanf
Colour, Pt/Co scale
25
25
15
15
15
5
Turbidity, NTU
10
10
5
0.5-5
1
1-2
Total Dissolved Solid, mg/L
2000
2000
1000
500
500
500
pH
6.5-9.2
6.5-8.5
6.5-8.5
6.5-8.5
6.5-8.5
5.8-8.6
Alkalinity as CaCO3, mg/L
600
600
-
-
-
-
Total hardness as CaCO3, mg/L
600
600
500
-
-
300
Calcium as Ca, mg/L
200
200
-
-
-
-
Magnesium as Mg, mg/L
150
100
-
-
-
-
Sodium as Na, mg/L
-
-
200
-
--
200
Iron as Fe, mg/L
1.0
1.0
0.3
0.3
1.0
1.0
Manganese as Mn, mg/L
0.5
0.3
0.1
0.05
0.05
0.01-0.05
Chloride as Cl, mg/L
1000
1000
250
250
250
200
Fluoride as F, mg/L
1.5
1.5
1.5
2.0-4.0
1.5
0.8
Sulphate as SO4, mg/L
400
400
400
250
500
Nitrate as NO3, mg/L
45
100
45
10 as N
10 as N
10 as N
Copper as Cu, mg/L
1.5
1.5
1.0
1.3
1.0
1.0
Cadmium as Cd, mg/L
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.005
0.005
0.01
Selenium as Se, mg/L
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.05
0.01
0.01
Mercury as Hg, mg/L
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.002
0.001
0.0005
Arsenic as As, mg/L
0.05
0.05
0.01
0.01
0.025
0.01
Lead as Pb, mg/L
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.015
0.01
0.05
Zinc as Zn, mg/L
15
15
5
5
5
1.0
Chromium as Cr, mg/L
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.1
0.05
0.05
Cyanide as CN, mg/L
0.05
0.05
0.01
0.2
0.2
0.05
Phenolic compounds, mg/L
0.002
0.002
-
-
0.002
0.005
Mineral oil, mg/L
0.03
003
-
-
-
-
Pesticides, mg/L
-
0.001
-
-
-
--
Residual free chlorine, mg/L
-
0.2
-
-
-
-
Aluminium, mg/L
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.05-0.2
0.2
0.2
Boron, mg/L
-
5
-
-
5.0
0.2
Alpha emitters, Bq/L
0.1
0.1
0.1
-
-
-
Beta emitters, Bq/L
1.0
1.0
1.0
-
-
-
Faecal coliform, Counts/ml
0.0
0.0
0.0
-
-
-
Protozoa
-
Nil
Nil
-
-
-
Helminths
-
Nil
Nil
-
-
-
Free living organisms
-
Nil
Nil
-
-
-
a Central Public Health & Environmental Engineering Organisation (CPHEEO) manual, Government of India. b Bureau Of Indian Standards (BIS), 1991 c World Health Oganisation (WHO) guidelines d United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) Maximum contaminant level. e Maximum acceptable concentration. In Canada Health Canada establishes these limits. f Maximum admissible concentration. In Japan the Ministry of Health and Welfare establishes these limits
Water related diseases
(Source: http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/diseases)
Sl. No.
Disease
Description and symptoms
Cause
Distribution
Intervention
1.
Anaemia
Most prevalent nutritional deficiency in the world. Common symptoms are fatigue, weakness, dizziness, drowsiness and loss of normal colour in the skin, lips, tongue, nails, white of the eye.
Main cause is iron deficiency, which gets aggravated with deficiency in folic acid, vitamin A or B12. Infections related to safe water management result into anaemia. Malaria is a major cause. Hookworm infection and schistosomiasis also contribute to anaemia.
Anaemia is a world-wide problem that affects the population most, which is exposed to a high risk of water related infections and where malnutrition is predominant.
Identification and remediation of the factors responsible for anaemia, supplementing iron, folic acid, vitamin A and B12, breast feeding and proper complimentary food for children, improving hygiene, sanitation and water supply
2.
Arsenicosis
Drinking arsenic rich water over a long period causes Arsenicosis. It causes colour change of skin, hard patches on the palms and soles of the feet, skin cancer, cancers of bladder, kidney and lung, disease of blood vessels of the legs, diabetes, high blood pressure and reproductive disorder.
Consumption of water containing arsenic more than 10 mg/L over a long period such as 5 to 20 years causes arsenicosis. Arsenic contamination in water may be both geogenic and anthropogenic in nature. Malnutrition aggravates arsenicosis
Arsenic contamination of groundwater has been found in many countries of the world that include Bangladesh, Chile, China, India, Mexico, Thailand, Vietnam and USA.
Provision of safe drinking water and enough dietary nutrition
3.
Campylobacteriosis
Campylobacteriosis is an infection of the gastrointestinal tract. Symptoms include severe diarrhoea (often mucous and blood), abdominal pain, malaise, fever and vomiting.
It is caused by campylobacteriosis bacteria, C. coli which gets transmitted from animals and animal products to humans
This disease is found world-wide both in developed and developing countries. Approximately 5-14% of all diarrhoea world-wide is thought to be caused by C. coli.
Provision of disinfected drinking water, thorough cooking of foods, proper handling of animals, avoiding raw milk.
4.
Cholera
Cholera is an intestinal bacterial infection that starts with painless water diarrhoea, nausea and vomiting. Untreated diarrhoea can lead to death due to rapid dehydration.
Cholera is caused by the bacterium Vibrio chloreae.
Cholera is a world-wide phenomenon. Cholera control is a major problem in Africa and several Asian countries.
Provision of safe drinking water, hygienic disposal of human excreta, proper personal and food hygiene.
5.
Cyanobacterial toxins
Toxicological effects of cyanobacterial toxins. Symptoms are skin irritation, stomach cramps, vomiting, nausea, diarrhoea, fever, sore throat, headache, muscle and joint pain, blisters in the mouth and liver damage
Some of the cyanobacterial toxins are, hepatotoxin (affecting liver), neurotoxins (affecting nervous system), alkaloids (gastrointestinal problems)
These organisms can grow rapidly in favourable conditions such as calm nutrient-rich fresh waters.
Reducing nutrient build-up (eutophication) in lakes and reservoirs, controlling agricultural pollution.
6.
Dengue and Dengue haemorrhagic fever
Dengue fever is a mosquito borne viral infection that may become lethal. Symptoms are high fever, severe headache, pain behind the eyes, muscle and joint pains, rash etc.
There are four distinct, but closely related viruses, which cause dengue. Dengue viruses are transmitted to humans through the bites of infective female Aedes mosquitoes
Dengue is found in subtropical regions where mosquitoes breed in small water collections around houses, drinking water containers, flower vases, discarded car tyres etc. Globally an estimated 50-100 million cases of dengue fever are reported each year.
Elimination of mosquitoes, use of screens and mosquito repellents
7.
Diarrhoea
Diarrhoea is the passage of loose or liquid stools more frequently than normal primarily due to gastrointestinal infection.
Diarrhoea may be caused by a number of bacterial, viral and parasitic organisms spread by water contaminated with human faeces from municipal sewage and septic tanks.
Diarrhoea occurs world wide and causes 4% of all deaths.
provision of safe drinking water, improved sanitation, Good hygiene practices, health education
8.
Fluoroisis
Ingestion of excess fluoride causes fluorosis. Exposure to high fluoride causes dental decay and skeletal problems.
Regular consumption of water contaminated with more than 1.5 mg/L of fluoride causes fluorosis.
Fluorosis has been observed in Syria, Jordan, Egypt, Libya, Algeria, Sudan, Kenya, Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, India, Thailand, China. America and Japan.
Provision of fluoride free water, proper health education regarding appropriate use of fluorides.
9.
Guinea-Worm disease (Dracunculiasis)
Guinea-worm disease is a debilitating and painful infection caused by a large nematode (roundworm)
It is caused by a roundworm Dracunculus medinensis. The larvae of this roundworm develop inside a water flea, which enters human body through contaminated drinking water.
Presently Guinea-worm disease is prevalent only in thirteen countries of Africa including Sudan, Nigeria, Ghana, Burkina Faso, Niger, Togo and Cote d'Ivoire.
Provision of safe drinking water is the only intervention for eliminating this disease.
10.
Hepatitis
Hepatitis is inflammation of liver. Symptoms are abrupt onset of fever, body weakness, loss of appetite, nausea and abdominal discomfort.
Hepatitis A and E viruses are both transmitted through contaminated water and from person to person. Hepatitis A also spreads through contaminated food.
Both hepatitis A and E are found world-wide especially in countries where sanitary and hygienic conditions are not adequate.
Supply of adequate and safe drinking water, education on sanitation and personal hygiene, vaccination against hepatitis A.
11.
Lead poisoning
Lead poisoning occurs due to ingestion of lead through air, water and food. It affects nervous and reproductive system. It can also cause hypertension and anaemia. Lead interferes with the functions of vitamin A and D.
Lead exposure is generally through air but it also takes place through drinking water supplied through lead pipelines.
Removal of lead pipes, water treatment for removing lead
12.
Leptospirosis
Leptospirosis is a bacterial disease. Symptoms are high fever, severe headache, muscle pains, chills, redness in the eyes, abdominal pain, jaundice, vomiting, diarrhoea and rash.
Leptospirosis is caused by pathogenic Leptospira spp. Human infection occurs through direct contact of the urine of the infected animals or by contact with a urine-contaminated environment such as surface water, soil and plants.
Leptospirosis cases world-wide are not well documented.
Control the level of infection at source (rodent control, animal vaccination etc.), use antibiotic, vaccination, Prevent swimming in contaminated water sources.
13.
Malaria
Malaria is a parasitic infectious disease transmitted by mosquitoes. Symptoms are malaria include fever, chills, headache, muscle aches, tiredness, nausea, diarrhoea anaemia and jaundice. Convulsions, coma and kidney failures can also occur.
Malaria is caused by four species of plasmodium parasites, namely, P. falciparum, P. vivax, P. ovale, P. malarie. People get malaria after being bitten by a malaria-infected Anopheles mosquito.
Malaria occurs mostly in tropical and subtropical countries, especially in Africa, South Sahara, South East-Asia and forest fringe zones in South America. WHO estimates 300-500 million cases of malaria with over 100 million deaths each year.
Use of effective anti malarial drugs, use of insecticide treated bed nets, filling and draining stagnant water bodies.
14.
Malnutrition
Malnutrition is the direct impact of unsafe drinking water that results into infectious diseases causing bad nourishment of the body.
Provision of safe drinking water, proper sanitation and hygiene, access to healthy food.
15.
Methaemoglobinaemia
Methaemoglobinaemia is the decreased ability of the blood to carry oxygen around the body. Infants are most often affected and show signs of blueness around the mouth, hands and feet. it is also known as blue baby syndrome.
Methaemoglobinaemia is caused because of the presence of excess nitrate in drinking water.
This is an uncommon disease but observed areas where water from shallow dugwells are used. Bottle fed infants are the maximum affected
Control of nitrate in drinking water below 50 mg/L.
16.
Onchocerciasis
Onchocerciasis or river blindness is a parasitic disease that may lead to blindness. Common symptoms are intense itching, depigmentation of skin, serious visual impairment. Symptoms usually begin to show 1-3 years after infection.
Onchocerciasis is caused by Onchocerca volvulus, a thin worm that can live for up to 14 years in the human body. The disease is transmitted from one another through the bite of a blackfly.
Onchocerciasis is found in 36 countries in Africa as well as in Guatemala, Southern Mexico, Venezuela, Brazil, Columbia, Ecuador and in the Arabian peninsula.
Elimination of blackfly breeding using larvicides and treating the patients with drug ivermectin.
17.
Ringworm (Tinea)
Ringworm or tinea is a typical skin disease caused by fungus. It starts with red or pink patch that spreads in a circle by affecting skin tissues.
Various types of fungi known as the dermatophytes cause ringworm. It spreads by direct contact with an infected person or animal or by indirect contact with the contaminated items.
Various types of ringworms are found world-wide
Adequate supply of water for personal washing and hygiene, regular and thorough bathing with soap and water, health education on personal hygiene.
18.
Scabies
Scabies is a contagious skin infection. The sign of the disease is a pimple like rash that is most commonly found on the webbings between fingers, skin fold of the wrist, elbow, knee.
Scabies is caused by the microscopic mite Sarcoptex scabei
Scabies mites are found world-wide , affecting all socio-economic classes and in all climates..
Access to adequate water supply and improved personal hygiene
19.
Schistosomiasis
Schistosomiasis is the second most important parasitic infection after malaria. The symptoms are rashes or itchy skin, fever, chills cough and muscle aches.
Schistosomiasis infection in humans is caused by three flatworm species, namely, Schistosoma haematobium, S. japonicum and S. mansoni. Infection occurs when free-swimming larvae in the contaminated water penetrate human skin.
Schistosomiasis is endemic in 76 countries, most of which are in Africa. At least 600 million people are at risk of infection and 200 million are infected with schistosomiasis
Improved sanitation and provision of potable water. environmental modification preventing snail vectors.
20.
Trachoma
Trachoma is an eye infection that may result into blindness after repeated re-infections.
Trachoma is caused by an organism called Chlamydia trachomatis
Trachoma occurs world-wide and most often in poor rural communities in developing countries. By an WHO estimate, six million people world-wide are blind due to trachoma and more than 150 million people are in need of treatment.
Access to safe water, improved sanitation. facial cleanliness surgery and antibiotic treatments.
21.
Typhoid and paratyphoid enteric fevers
Typhoid fever is a bacterial infection of intestinal tract and bloodstream. Symptoms include high fever, malaise, anorexia, headache, constipation or diarrhoea, rose coloured spots on the chest, enlarged spleen and liver.
The bacteria Salmonella typhi and S. paratyphi respectively cause typhoid and paratyphoid fevers. Infection takes place through contaminated food or drinking water.
typhoid and paratyphoid fevers are common in less industrialised areas. The annual incidence of typhoid is estimated to be about 17 million cases worldwide.
Health education on personal hygiene, especially hand washing after toilet, before food preparation and provision of safe drinking water
